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</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="font-size:130%;"><a href="Business_administration" title="Business administration">Business administration</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Accounting" title="Accounting">Accounting</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="Management_accounting" title="Management accounting">Management accounting</a></li>
<li><a href="Financial_accounting" title="Financial accounting">Financial accounting</a></li>
<li><a href="Audit" title="Audit">Audit</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Legal_person" title="Legal person">Business entity</a> (<a href="List_of_legal_entity_types_by_country" title="List of legal entity types by country">list</a>)</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="Corporate_group" title="Corporate group">Corporate group</a></li>
<li><a href="Corporation_sole" title="Corporation sole">Corporation sole</a></li>
<li><a href="Company" title="Company">Company</a></li>
<li><a href="Conglomerate_(company)" title="Conglomerate (company)">Conglomerate</a></li>
<li><a href="Holding_company" title="Holding company">Holding company</a></li>
<li><a href="Cooperative" title="Cooperative">Cooperative</a></li>
<li><a href="Corporation" title="Corporation">Corporation</a></li>
<li><a href="Joint-stock_company" title="Joint-stock company">Joint-stock company</a></li>
<li><a href="Limited_liability_company" title="Limited liability company">Limited liability company</a></li>
<li><a href="Partnership" title="Partnership">Partnership</a></li>
<li><a href="Privately_held_company" title="Privately held company">Privately held company</a></li>
<li><a href="Sole_proprietorship" title="Sole proprietorship">Sole proprietorship</a></li>
<li><a href="State-owned_enterprise" title="State-owned enterprise">State-owned enterprise</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Corporate_governance" title="Corporate governance">Corporate governance</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="Annual_general_meeting" title="Annual general meeting">Annual general meeting</a></li>
<li><a href="Board_of_directors" title="Board of directors">Board of directors</a></li>
<li><a href="Supervisory_board" title="Supervisory board">Supervisory board</a></li>
<li><a href="Advisory_board" title="Advisory board">Advisory board</a></li>
<li><a href="Audit_committee" title="Audit committee">Audit committee</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Corporate_law" title="Corporate law">Corporate law</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="Commercial_law" title="Commercial law">Commercial law</a></li>
<li><a href="Constitutional_documents" title="Constitutional documents">Constitutional documents</a></li>
<li><a href="Contract" title="Contract">Contract</a></li>
<li><a href="Corporate_crime" title="Corporate crime">Corporate crime</a></li>
<li><a href="Corporate_liability" title="Corporate liability">Corporate liability</a></li>
<li><a href="Insolvency_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Insolvency law">Insolvency law</a></li>
<li><a href="International_trade_law" title="International trade law">International trade law</a></li>
<li><a href="Mergers_and_acquisitions" title="Mergers and acquisitions">Mergers and acquisitions</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Corporate_title" title="Corporate title">Corporate title</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="Chairman" class="mw-redirect" title="Chairman">Chairman</a></li>
<li><a href="Chief_business_officer" title="Chief business officer">Chief business officer</a>/<a href="Chief_brand_officer" class="mw-redirect" title="Chief brand officer">Chief brand officer</a></li>
<li><a href="Chief_executive_officer" title="Chief executive officer">Chief executive officer</a>/<a href="Chief_operating_officer" title="Chief operating officer">Chief operating officer</a></li>
<li><a href="Chief_financial_officer" title="Chief financial officer">Chief financial officer</a></li>
<li><a href="Chief_human_resources_officer" title="Chief human resources officer">Chief human resources officer</a></li>
<li><a href="Chief_information_officer" title="Chief information officer">Chief information officer</a>/<a href="Chief_marketing_officer" title="Chief marketing officer">Chief marketing officer</a></li>
<li><a href="Chief_product_officer" title="Chief product officer">Chief product officer</a>/<a href="Chief_technology_officer" title="Chief technology officer">Chief technology officer</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="Commodity" title="Commodity">Commodity</a></li>
<li><a href="Public_economics" title="Public economics">Public economics</a></li>
<li><a href="Labour_economics" title="Labour economics">Labour economics</a></li>
<li><a href="Development_economics" title="Development economics">Development economics</a></li>
<li><a href="International_economics" title="International economics">International economics</a></li>
<li><a href="Mixed_economy" title="Mixed economy">Mixed economy</a></li>
<li><a href="Planned_economy" title="Planned economy">Planned economy</a></li>
<li><a href="Econometrics" title="Econometrics">Econometrics</a></li>
<li><a href="Environmental_economics" title="Environmental economics">Environmental economics</a></li>
<li><a href="Open_economy" title="Open economy">Open economy</a></li>
<li><a href="Market_economy" title="Market economy">Market economy</a></li>
<li><a href="Knowledge_economy" title="Knowledge economy">Knowledge economy</a></li>
<li><a href="Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">Microeconomics</a></li>
<li><a href="Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">Macroeconomics</a></li>
<li><a href="Economic_development" title="Economic development">Economic development</a></li>
<li><a href="Economic_statistics" title="Economic statistics">Economic statistics</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center;;color: var(--color-base)">Finance</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="Financial_statement" title="Financial statement">Financial statement</a></li>
<li><a href="Insurance" title="Insurance">Insurance</a></li>
<li><a href="Factoring_(finance)" title="Factoring (finance)">Factoring</a></li>
<li><a href="Cash_conversion_cycle" title="Cash conversion cycle">Cash conversion cycle</a></li>
<li><a href="Insider_dealing" class="mw-redirect" title="Insider dealing">Insider dealing</a></li>
<li><a href="Capital_budgeting" title="Capital budgeting">Capital budgeting</a></li>
<li><a href="Commercial_bank" title="Commercial bank">Commercial bank</a></li>
<li><a href="Derivative_(finance)" title="Derivative (finance)">Derivative</a></li>
<li><a href="Financial_statement_analysis" title="Financial statement analysis">Financial statement analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="Financial_risk" title="Financial risk">Financial risk</a></li>
<li><a href="Public_finance" title="Public finance">Public finance</a></li>
<li><a href="Corporate_finance" title="Corporate finance">Corporate finance</a></li>
<li><a href="Managerial_finance" title="Managerial finance">Managerial finance</a></li>
<li><a href="International_finance" title="International finance">International finance</a></li>
<li><a href="Liquidation" title="Liquidation">Liquidation</a></li>
<li><a href="Stock_market" title="Stock market">Stock market</a></li>
<li><a href="Financial_market" title="Financial market">Financial market</a></li>
<li><a href="Tax" title="Tax">Tax</a></li>
<li><a href="Financial_institution" title="Financial institution">Financial institution</a></li>
<li><a href="Capital_management" title="Capital management">Capital management</a></li>
<li><a href="Venture_capital" title="Venture capital">Venture capital</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center;;color: var(--color-base)">Types of management</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="Asset_management" title="Asset management">Asset</a></li>
<li><a href="Brand_management" title="Brand management">Brand</a></li>
<li><a href="Business_intelligence" title="Business intelligence">Business intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="Business_development" title="Business development">Business development</a></li>
<li><a href="Capacity_management" title="Capacity management">Capacity</a></li>
<li><a href="Capability_management_in_business" title="Capability management in business">Capability</a></li>
<li><a href="Change_management" title="Change management">Change</a>
<ul><li><a href="Innovation_management" title="Innovation management">innovation</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Commercial_management" title="Commercial management">Commercial</a>
<ul><li><a href="Marketing_management" title="Marketing management">Marketing</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Communications_management" title="Communications management">Communications</a></li>
<li><a href="Configuration_management" title="Configuration management">Configuration</a></li>
<li><a href="Conflict_management" title="Conflict management">Conflict</a></li>
<li><a href="Content_management" title="Content management">Content</a></li>
<li><a href="Customer_relationship_management" title="Customer relationship management">Customer relationship</a></li>
<li><a href="Distributed_management" title="Distributed management">Distributed</a></li>
<li><a href="Earned_value_management" title="Earned value management">Earned value</a></li>
<li><a href="Electronic_business" title="Electronic business">Electronic business</a></li>
<li><a href="Enterprise_resource_planning" title="Enterprise resource planning">Enterprise resource planning</a>
<ul><li><a href="Management_information_system" title="Management information system">management information system</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Financial_management" title="Financial management">Financial</a></li>
<li><a href="Human_resource_management" title="Human resource management">Human resource</a>
<ul><li><a href="Human_resources" title="Human resources">development</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Incident_management" title="Incident management">Incident</a></li>
<li><a href="Knowledge_management" title="Knowledge management">Knowledge</a></li>
<li><a href="Enterprise_legal_management" title="Enterprise legal management">Legal</a></li>
<li><a href="Materials_management" title="Materials management">Materials</a></li>
<li><a href="Network_management" title="Network management">Network</a>
<ul><li><a href="Network_administrator" title="Network administrator">administrator</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Office_management" title="Office management">Office</a></li>
<li><a href="Operations_management" title="Operations management">Operations</a>
<ul><li><a href="Operations_management_for_services" title="Operations management for services">services</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Performance_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Performance management">Performance</a></li>
<li><a href="Power_management" title="Power management">Power</a></li>
<li><a href="Business_process_management" title="Business process management">Process</a></li>
<li><a href="Product_life-cycle_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Product life-cycle management">Product life-cycle</a></li>
<li><a href="Product_management" title="Product management">Product</a></li>
<li><a href="Project_management" title="Project management">Project</a></li>
<li><a href="Property_management" title="Property management">Property</a></li>
<li><a href="Quality_management" title="Quality management">Quality</a></li>
<li><a href="Records_management" title="Records management">Records</a></li>
<li><a href="Resource_management" title="Resource management">Resource</a></li>
<li><a href="Risk_management" title="Risk management">Risk</a>
<ul><li><a href="Crisis_management" title="Crisis management">crisis</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Sales_management" title="Sales management">Sales</a></li>
<li><a href="Security_management" title="Security management">Security</a></li>
<li><a href="Service_management" title="Service management">Service</a></li>
<li><a href="Strategic_management" title="Strategic management">Strategic</a></li>
<li><a href="Supply_chain_management" title="Supply chain management">Supply chain</a></li>
<li><a href="Systems_management" title="Systems management">Systems</a>
<ul><li><a href="System_administrator" title="System administrator">administrator</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Talent_management" title="Talent management">Talent</a></li>
<li><a href="Technology_management" title="Technology management">Technology</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center;;color: var(--color-base)">Organization</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="Organizational_architecture" title="Organizational architecture">Architecture</a></li>
<li><a href="Organizational_behavior" title="Organizational behavior">Behavior</a></li>
<li><a href="Organizational_communication" title="Organizational communication">Communication</a></li>
<li><a href="Organizational_culture" title="Organizational culture">Culture</a></li>
<li><a href="Organizational_conflict" title="Organizational conflict">Conflict</a></li>
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<p><b>Organization development</b> (<b>OD</b>) is the study and implementation of practices, systems, and techniques that affect <a href="Organizational_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Organizational change">organizational change</a>. The goal of which is to modify a group's/organization's performance and/or culture. The organizational changes are typically initiated by the group's <a href="Stakeholder_(corporate)" title="Stakeholder (corporate)">stakeholders</a>. OD emerged from <a href="Human_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Human relations">human relations</a> studies in the 1930s, during which psychologists realized that organizational structures and processes influence worker behavior and <a href="Motivation" title="Motivation">motivation</a>.
</p><p>Organization Development allows businesses to construct and maintain a brand new preferred state for the whole agency. Key concepts of OD theory include: <a href="Organisation_climate" title="Organisation climate">organizational climate</a> (the mood or unique "personality" of an organization, which includes attitudes and beliefs that influence members' <a href="Collective_behavior" title="Collective behavior">collective behavior</a>), <a href="Organizational_culture" title="Organizational culture">organizational culture</a> (the deeply-seated norms, values, and behaviors that members share) and organizational strategies (how an organization identifies problems, plans action, negotiates change and evaluates progress).<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A key aspect of OD is to review <a href="Organizational_identity" title="Organizational identity">organizational identity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<meta property="mw:PageProp/toc">
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2></div>
<p>Organization development as a practice involves an ongoing, systematic process of implementing effective organizational change. OD is both a field of applied science focused on understanding and managing organizational change and a field of scientific study and inquiry. It is interdisciplinary in nature and draws on <a href="Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>, <a href="Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, particularly <a href="Industrial_and_organizational_psychology" title="Industrial and organizational psychology">industrial and organizational psychology</a>, and theories of <a href="Motivation" title="Motivation">motivation</a>, learning, and <a href="Personality" title="Personality">personality</a>. Although behavioral science has provided the basic foundation for the study and practice of OD, new and emerging fields of study have made their presence felt. Experts in <a href="Systems_thinking" title="Systems thinking">systems thinking</a>, in <a href="Organizational_learning" title="Organizational learning">organizational learning</a>, in the structure of intuition in decision-making, and in <a href="Coaching" title="Coaching">coaching</a> (to name a few) whose perspective is not steeped in just the behavioral sciences, but in a much more multi-disciplinary and inter-disciplinary approach, have emerged as OD catalysts or tools.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History">History</h3></div>
<p><a href="Kurt_Lewin" title="Kurt Lewin">Kurt Lewin</a> (1898–1947) is the founding father of OD, although he died before the concept became mainstream in the mid-1950s.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From Lewin came the ideas of <a href="Group_dynamics" title="Group dynamics">group dynamics</a> and <a href="Action_research" title="Action research">action research</a> which underpin the basic OD process as well as providing its collaborative consultant/client ethos. Institutionally, Lewin founded the "Research Center for Group Dynamics" (RCGD) at <a href="MIT" class="mw-redirect" title="MIT">MIT</a>, which moved to Michigan after his death. RCGD colleagues were among those who founded the <a href="National_Training_Laboratories" title="National Training Laboratories">National Training Laboratories</a> (NTL), from which the <a href="T-groups" title="T-groups">T-groups</a> and group-based OD emerged.
</p><p><a href="Kurt_Lewin" title="Kurt Lewin">Kurt Lewin</a> played a key role in the evolution of organization development as it is known today. As early as <a href="World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> (1939-1945), Lewin experimented with a collaborative change-process (involving himself as a consultant and a client group) based on a three-step process of planning, taking action, and measuring results. This was the forerunner of action research, an important element of OD, which will be discussed later. Lewin also initiated a learning method known as laboratory training, or T-groups. After Lewin's death in 1947, his close associates helped to develop survey-research methods at the <a href="University_of_Michigan" title="University of Michigan">University of Michigan</a>. These procedures became important parts of OD as developments in this field continued at the <a href="National_Training_Laboratories" title="National Training Laboratories">National Training Laboratories</a> and in growing numbers of universities and private consulting-firms across the US. Leading universities offering doctoral-level<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> degrees in OD include <a href="Benedictine_University" title="Benedictine University">Benedictine University</a> and the <a href="Fielding_Graduate_University" title="Fielding Graduate University">Fielding Graduate University</a>.
</p><p>Douglas and Richard Beckhard, while "consulting together at General Mills in the 1950s [...] coined the term <i>organization development</i> (OD) to describe an innovative bottom-up change effort that fit no traditional consulting categories" (Weisbord, 1987, p. 112).<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The failure of off-site laboratory training to live up to its early promise was one of the important forces stimulating the development of OD. Laboratory training is learning from a person's "here and now" experience as a member of an ongoing training group. Such groups usually meet without a specific agenda. Their purpose is for the members to learn about themselves from their spontaneous "here and now" responses to an ambiguous situation. Problems of <a href="Leadership" title="Leadership">leadership</a>, structure, status, <a href="Communication" title="Communication">communication</a>, and self-serving behavior typically arise in such a group. The members have an opportunity to learn something about themselves and to practice such skills as listening, observing others, and functioning as effective group members.<sup id="cite_ref-Johnson_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johnson-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Herbert_A._Shepard" title="Herbert A. Shepard">Herbert A. Shepard</a> conducted the first large-scale experiments in Organization Development in the late fifties.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also founded the first doctoral program in organizational behavior at Case Western State University, and his colleague, Robert Blake, was also influential in making the term "organizational development" a more widely recognized field of psychological research. <sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>As formerly practiced (and occasionally still practiced for special purposes), laboratory training was conducted in "stranger groups"—groups composed of individuals from different organizations, situations, and backgrounds. A major difficulty developed, however, in transferring knowledge gained from these "stranger labs" to the actual situation "back home". This required a transfer between two different cultures, the relatively safe and protected environment of the T-group (or training group), and the give-and-take of the organizational environment with its traditional values. This led the early pioneers in this type of learning to begin to apply it to "family groups"—that is, groups located within an organization. From this shift in the locale of the training site and the realization that culture was an important factor in influencing group members (along with some other developments in the behavioral sciences) emerged the concept of organization development.<sup id="cite_ref-Johnson_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johnson-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Core_values">Core values</h3></div>
<p>Underlying Organization Development are <a href="Humanistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Humanistic">humanistic</a> values. Margulies and Raia (1972) articulated the humanistic values of OD as follows:
</p>
<ol><li>providing opportunities for people to function as human beings rather than as resources in the productive process</li>
<li>providing opportunities for each organization member, as well as for the organization itself, to develop to their full potential</li>
<li>seeking to increase the effectiveness of the organization in terms of all of its goals</li>
<li>attempting to create an environment in which it is possible to find exciting and challenging work</li>
<li>providing opportunities for people in organizations to influence the way in which they relate to work, the organization, and the environment</li>
<li>treating each human being as a person with a complex set of needs, all of which are important to their work and their life<sup id="cite_ref-Margulies_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Margulies-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol>
<p>This is a separate concept from change efforts known as:
</p>
<ol><li>Operation management</li>
<li><a href="Training_and_development" title="Training and development">Training and development</a></li>
<li>Technological innovations....etc.</li></ol>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Objectives">Objectives</h4></div>
<p>The objectives of OD are:
</p>
<ol><li>to increase the level of inter-personal trust among employees</li>
<li>to increase employees' level of satisfaction and commitment</li>
<li>to confront problems instead of neglecting them</li>
<li>to effectively manage conflict</li>
<li>to increase cooperation and collaboration among employees</li>
<li>to increase organizational problem-solving</li>
<li>to put in place processes that will help improve the ongoing operation of an organization on a continuous basis</li></ol>
<p>As objectives of organizational development are framed keeping in view specific situations, they vary from one situation to another. In other words, these programs are tailored to meet the requirements of a particular situation. But broadly speaking, all organizational development programs try to achieve the following objectives:
</p>
<ol><li>making individuals in the organization aware of the vision of the organization. Organizational development helps in making employees align with the vision of the organization</li>
<li>encouraging employees to solve problems instead of avoiding them</li>
<li>strengthening inter-personal trust, cooperation, and communication for the successful achievement of organizational goals</li>
<li>encouraging every individual to participate in the process of planning, thus making them feel responsible for the implementation of the plan</li>
<li>creating a work atmosphere in which employees are encouraged to work and participate enthusiastically</li>
<li>replacing formal lines of authority with personal knowledge and skill</li>
<li>preparing members to align with changes and to break stereotypes</li>
<li>creating an environment of trust so that employees willingly accept change</li></ol>
<p>According to organizational-development thinking, organization development provides <a href="Management" title="Management"> managers</a> with a vehicle for introducing change systematically by applying a broad selection of management techniques. This, in turn, leads to greater personal, group, and organizational effectiveness.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Change_agent">Change agent</h3></div>
<p>A change agent in the sense used here is not a technical expert skilled in such functional areas as accounting, production, or finance. The change agent is a behavioral scientist who knows how to get people in an organization involved in solving their own problems. A change agent's main strength is a comprehensive knowledge of human behavior, supported by a number of intervention techniques (to be discussed later). The change agent can be either external or internal to the organization. An internal change agent is usually a staff person who has expertise in the behavioral sciences and in the intervention technology of OD. Beckhard reports several cases in which line people have been trained in OD and have returned to their organizations to engage in successful change-assignments.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Researchers at the <a href="University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">University of Oxford</a> found that <a href="Leader" class="mw-redirect" title="Leader">leaders</a> can be effective change-agents within their own organizations if they are strongly committed to "knowledge leadership" targeted towards organizational development. In their three-year study of UK healthcare organizations, the researchers identified three different mechanisms through which knowledge leaders actively "transposed", "appropriated" or "contended" change concepts, effectively translating and embedding these in organizational practice.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The change agent may be a staff or line member of the organization who is schooled in OD theory and technique. In such a case, the "contractual relationship" is an in-house agreement that should probably be explicit with respect to all of the conditions involved except the fee.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sponsoring_organization">Sponsoring organization</h3></div>
<p>The initiative for OD programs often comes from an organization that has a problem or anticipates facing a problem. This means that top <a href="Management" title="Management">management</a> or someone authorized by top management is aware that a problem exists and has decided to seek help in solving it. There is a direct analogy here to the practice of <a href="Psychotherapy" title="Psychotherapy">psychotherapy</a>: The client or <a href="Patient" title="Patient">patient</a> must actively seek help in finding a solution to his problems. This indicates a willingness on the part of the client organization to accept help and assures the organization that management is actively concerned.<sup id="cite_ref-Johnson1_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johnson1-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Applied_behavioral_science">Applied behavioral science</h3></div>
<p>One of the outstanding characteristics of OD that distinguishes it from most other improvement programs is that it is based on a "helping relationship". Some believe that the change agent is a physician to the organization's ills; that s/he does not examine the "patient", make a <a href="Organizational_diagnostics" title="Organizational diagnostics">diagnosis</a>, and write a prescription. Nor does s/he try to teach organizational members a new inventory of knowledge which they then transfer to the job situation. Using theory and methods drawn from such <a href="Behavioral_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioral sciences">behavioral sciences</a> as <a href="Industrial_and_organizational_psychology" title="Industrial and organizational psychology">industrial/organizational psychology</a>, <a href="Industrial_sociology" title="Industrial sociology">industrial sociology</a>, <a href="Communication" title="Communication">communication</a>, <a href="Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural anthropology</a>, <a href="Administration_of_business" class="mw-redirect" title="Administration of business">administrative</a> theory, <a href="Organizational_behavior" title="Organizational behavior">organizational behavior</a>, <a href="Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>, and <a href="Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a>, the change agent's main function is to help the organization define and solve its own problems. The basic method used is known as action research. This approach, which is described in detail later, consists of a preliminary diagnosis, collecting data, feedback of the data to the client, data exploration by the client group, action planning based on the data, and taking action.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Systems_context">Systems context</h3></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_holistic_and_futuristic_view_of_organization">The holistic and futuristic view of organization</h3></div>
<p>OD deals with a total system—the organization as a whole, including its relevant environment—or with a subsystem or systems—departments or workgroups—in the context of the total system. Parts of systems—for example, individuals, cliques, structures, norms, values, and products—are not considered in isolation; the principle of interdependency—that change in one part of a system affects the other parts—is fully recognized. Thus OD interventions focus on the total cultures and cultural processes of organizations. The focus is also on groups, since the relevant behavior of individuals in organizations and groups is generally a product of the influences of groups rather than of personalities.<sup id="cite_ref-Johnson1_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johnson1-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Improved_organizational_performance">Improved organizational performance</h2></div>
<p>The objective of OD is to improve the organization's capacity to handle its internal and external functioning and relationships. This includes improved interpersonal and group processes, more effective communication, and enhanced ability to cope with organizational problems of all kinds. It also involves more effective decision processes, more appropriate <a href="Leadership_style" title="Leadership style">leadership styles</a>, improved skill in dealing with destructive conflict, as well as developing improved levels of trust and cooperation among organizational members. These objectives stem from a value system based on an optimistic view of the nature of man—that man in a supportive environment is capable of achieving higher levels of development and accomplishment. Essential to organization development and effectiveness is the scientific method—inquiry, a rigorous search for causes, experimental testing of hypotheses, and review of results.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p><i><a href="Workers'_self-management" title="Workers' self-management">Self-managing</a></i> workgroups allow the members of a work team to manage, control, and monitor all facets of their work, from recruiting, hiring, and new employees to deciding when to take rest breaks. An early analysis of the first-self-managing work groups yielded the following behavioral characteristics (Hackman, 1986):
</p>
<ul><li>Employees assume personal responsibility and accountability for the outcomes of their work.</li>
<li>Employees monitor their own performance and seek feedback on how well they are accomplishing their goals.</li>
<li>Employees manage their performance and take corrective action when necessary to improve their and the performance of other group members.</li>
<li>Employees seek guidance, assistance, and resources from the organization when they do not have what they need to do the job.</li>
<li>Employees help members of their workgroup and employees in other groups to improve <a href="Job_performance" title="Job performance">job performance</a> and raise productivity for the organization as a whole.</li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Organizational_self-renewal">Organizational self-renewal</h3></div>
<p>The ultimate aim of OD practitioners is to "work themselves out of a job" by leaving the client organization with a set of tools, behaviors, attitudes, and an action plan with which to monitor its own state of health and to take corrective steps toward its own renewal and development. This is consistent with the systems concept of feedback as a regulatory and corrective mechanism.<sup id="cite_ref-Johnson1_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johnson1-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To this end, OD scholars and practitioners use tools such as simulations with their clients, to be used in workshops and classroom settings. One example of a self-renewal simulation, authored by researchers from Cornell University and Indiana University, can be found here (see citation).<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The study of organizational effectiveness and improving <a href="Enterprise_performance_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Enterprise performance management">organizational performance</a> has developed alongside the study of <a href="Leadership_development" title="Leadership development">leadership development</a> with a greater focus on leadership development programs that focus on the development of the individual. See .<a href="Emotional_intelligence" title="Emotional intelligence">Emotional intelligence</a> in relation to leadership development.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Understanding_organizations">Understanding organizations</h2></div>
<p>Weisbord presents a six-box model for understanding organizations:
</p>
<ol><li>Purposes: The organization members are clear about the organization's mission and purpose and goal agreements, whether people support the organization's purpose.</li>
<li>Structure: How is the organization's work divided up? The question is whether there is an adequate fit between the purpose and the internal structure.</li>
<li>Relationship: Between individuals, between units or departments that perform different tasks, and between the people and requirements of their jobs.</li>
<li>Rewards: The consultant should diagnose the similarities between what the organization formally rewarded or punished members for.</li>
<li>Leadership: Is to watch for blips among the other boxes and maintain balance among them.</li>
<li>Helpful mechanism: What must the organization attend to in order to survive and thrive—procedures such as planning, control, budgeting, and other information systems.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_development">Modern development</h3></div>
<p>In recent years, serious questioning has emerged about the relevance of OD to <a href="Change_management" title="Change management">managing change</a> in modern organizations. The need for "reinventing" the field has become a topic that even some of its "founding fathers" are discussing critically.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>With this call for reinvention and change, scholars have begun to examine organizational development from an emotion-based standpoint. For example, deKlerk (2007)<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> writes about how emotional trauma can negatively affect performance. Due to downsizing, outsourcing, mergers, restructuring, continual changes, invasions of privacy, harassment, and abuses of power, many employees experience the emotions of aggression, anxiety, apprehension, cynicism, and fear, which can lead to performance decreases. de Klerk (2007) suggests that in order to heal the trauma and increase performance, O.D. practitioners must acknowledge the existence of the trauma, provide a safe place for employees to discuss their feelings, symbolize the trauma and put it into perspective, and then allow for and deal with the emotional responses. One method of achieving this is by having employees draw pictures of what they feel about the situation, and then having them explain their drawings with each other. Drawing pictures is beneficial because it allows employees to express emotions they normally would not be able to put into words. Also, drawings often prompt active participation in the activity, as everyone is required to draw a picture and then discuss its meaning...
</p><p>The use of new technologies combined with globalization has also shifted the field of organizational development. Roland Sullivan (2005) defined Organization Development with participants at the 1st Organization Development Conference for Asia in Dubai-2005 as "Organization Development is a transformative leap to a desired vision where strategies and systems align, in the light of local culture with an innovative and authentic leadership style using the support of high tech tools. Bob Aubrey (2015)<sup id="cite_ref-Measure_of_Man_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Measure_of_Man-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> introduced Key Development Indicators to help organizations go beyond performance and align strategy, organizations, and individuals and argued that fundamental challenges such as robotics, artificial intelligence, and genetics prefigure a regeneration of the field.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Action_research">Action research</h2></div>
<p>Wendell L French and Cecil Bell defined organization development (OD) at one point as "organization improvement through action research".<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If one idea can be said to summarize OD's underlying philosophy, it would be action research as it was conceptualized by <a href="Kurt_Lewin" title="Kurt Lewin">Kurt Lewin</a> and later elaborated and expanded on by other behavioral scientists. Concerned with social change and, more particularly, with effective, permanent social change, Lewin believed that the motivation to change was strongly related to action: If people are active in decisions affecting them, they are more likely to adopt new ways. "Rational social management", he said, "proceeds in a spiral of steps, each of which is composed of a circle of planning, action, and fact-finding about the result of action".<sup id="cite_ref-Lewin_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewin-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<p>Lewin's description of the process of change involves three steps:<sup id="cite_ref-Lewin_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewin-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>"Unfreezing": Faced with a dilemma or disconfirmation, the individual or group becomes aware of a need to change.
</p><p>"Changing": The situation is diagnosed and new models of behavior are explored and tested.
</p><p>"Refreezing": Application of new behavior is evaluated, and if reinforced, adopted.
</p><p><i>Figure 1</i> summarizes the steps and processes involved in <a href="Planned_change" title="Planned change">planned change</a> through action research. Action research is depicted as a cyclical process of change. The cycle begins with a series of planning actions initiated by the client and the change agent working together. The principal elements of this stage include a preliminary diagnosis, data gathering, feedback of results, and joint action planning. In the language of <a href="Systems_theory" title="Systems theory">systems theory</a>, this is the input phase, in which the client system becomes aware of problems as yet unidentified, realizes it may need outside help to effect changes, and shares with the consultant the process of problem diagnosis.
</p><p>The second stage of action research is the action, or transformation, phase. This stage includes actions relating to learning processes (perhaps in the form of role analysis) and to planning and executing behavioral changes in the client organization. As shown in Figure 1, feedback at this stage would move via Feedback Loop A and would have the effect of altering previous planning to bring the learning activities of the client system into better alignment with change objectives. Included in this stage is action-planning activity carried out jointly by the consultant and members of the client system. Following the workshop or learning sessions, these action steps are carried out on the job as part of the transformation stage.<sup id="cite_ref-Johnson_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johnson-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The third stage of action research is the output, or results, phase. This stage includes actual changes in behavior (if any) resulting from corrective action steps taken following the second stage. Data are again gathered from the client system so that progress can be determined and necessary adjustments in learning activities can be made. Minor adjustments of this nature can be made in learning activities via Feedback Loop B (see <i>Figure 1</i>). Major adjustments and reevaluations would return the OD project to the first, or planning, a stage for basic changes in the program. The action-research model shown in <i>Figure 1</i> closely follows Lewin's repetitive cycle of planning, action, and measuring results. It also illustrates other aspects of Lewin's general model of change. As indicated in the diagram, the planning stage is a period of unfreezing, or problem awareness.<sup id="cite_ref-Lewin_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewin-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The action stage is a period of change, that is, trying out new forms of behavior in an effort to understand and cope with the system's problems. (There is inevitable overlap between the stages since the boundaries are not clear-cut and cannot be in a continuous process). The results stage is a period of refreezing, in which new behaviors are tried out on the job and, if successful and reinforcing, become a part of the system's repertoire of problem-solving behavior.
</p><p>Action research is problem-centered, client-centered, and action-oriented. It involves the client system in a diagnostic, active-learning, problem-finding, and problem-solving process. Data are not simply returned in the form of a written report but instead are fed back in open joint sessions, and the client and the change agent collaborate in identifying and ranking specific problems, in devising methods for finding their real causes, and in developing plans for coping with them realistically and practically. Scientific method in the form of data gathering, forming hypotheses, testing hypotheses, and measuring results, although not pursued as rigorously as in the laboratory, is nevertheless an integral part of the process. Action research also sets in motion a long-range, cyclical, self-correcting mechanism for maintaining and enhancing the effectiveness of the client's system by leaving the system with practical and useful tools for self-analysis and self-renewal.<sup id="cite_ref-Johnson_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johnson-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Interventions">Interventions</h2></div>
<p>"Interventions" are principal learning processes in the "action" stage (see <i>Figure 1</i>) of <a href="Organization" title="Organization">organization</a> development. Interventions are structured activities used individually or in combination by the members of a client <a href="System" title="System">system</a> to improve their social or task <a href="Performance" title="Performance">performance</a>. They may be introduced by a change agent as part of an improvement program, or they may be used by the client following a program to check on the state of the organization's health or to effect necessary changes in its own behavior. "Structured activities" mean such diverse procedures as experiential exercises, questionnaires, attitude surveys, interviews, relevant group discussions, and even lunchtime meetings between the change agent and a member of the client <a href="Organization" title="Organization">organization</a>. Every action that influences an organization's improvement program in a change agent-client system relationship can be said to be an intervention.<sup id="cite_ref-Johnson2_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johnson2-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The change agent may opt for setting up an episodic intervention organization within the client organization as part of the OD action plan.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>There are many possible intervention strategies from which to choose. Several assumptions about the nature and functioning of <a href="Organization" title="Organization">organizations</a> are made in the choice of a particular strategy. <a href="Richard_Beckhard" title="Richard Beckhard">Beckhard</a> lists six such assumptions:
</p>
<ol><li>The basic building blocks of an <a href="Organization" title="Organization">organization</a> are groups (<a href="Team" title="Team">teams</a>). Therefore, the basic units of change are groups, not individuals.</li>
<li>An always relevant change goal is the reduction of inappropriate <a href="Competition" title="Competition">competition</a> between parts of the organization and the development of a more collaborative condition.</li>
<li>Decision making in a healthy organization is located where the information sources are, rather than in a particular role or level of <a href="Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">hierarchy</a>.</li>
<li>Organizations, subunits of organizations, and individuals continuously manage their affairs against goals. Controls are interim measurements, not the basis of managerial strategy.</li>
<li>One goal of a healthy organization is to develop generally open <a href="Communication" title="Communication">communication</a>, mutual trust, and <a href="Confidence" title="Confidence">confidence</a> between and across levels.</li>
<li>People support what they help create. People affected by a change must be allowed active participation and a sense of ownership in the planning and conduct of the change.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol>
<p>Interventions range from those designed to improve the <a href="Effectiveness" title="Effectiveness">effectiveness</a> of individuals through those designed to deal with teams and groups, intergroup relations, and the total organization. There are interventions that focus on task issues (what people do), and those that focus on process issues (how people go about doing it). Finally, interventions may be roughly classified according to which change mechanism they tend to emphasize: for example, feedback, awareness of changing cultural norms, interaction and <a href="Communication" title="Communication">communication</a>, <a href="Organizational_conflict" title="Organizational conflict">conflict</a>, and <a href="Education" title="Education">education</a> through either new knowledge or skill practice.<sup id="cite_ref-French_and_Bell_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-French_and_Bell-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>One of the most difficult tasks confronting the change agent is to help create in the <a href="Customer" title="Customer">client</a> system a safe climate for learning and change. In a favorable climate, human learning builds on itself and continues indefinitely during man's lifetime. Out of new <a href="Behavior" title="Behavior">behavior</a>, new dilemmas and problems emerge as the spiral continues upward to new levels. In an unfavorable climate, in contrast, learning is far less certain, and in an atmosphere of psychological threat, it often stops altogether. Unfreezing old ways can be inhibited in <a href="Organization" title="Organization">organizations</a> because the climate makes employees feel that it is inappropriate to reveal true <a href="Feeling" title="Feeling">feelings</a>, even though such revelations could be constructive. In an inhibited atmosphere, therefore, necessary feedback is not available. Also, trying out new ways may be viewed as risky because it violates established norms. Such an organization may also be constrained because of the law of systems: If one part changes, other parts will become involved. Hence, it is easier to maintain the status quo. Hierarchical authority, specialization, span of control, and other characteristics of formal systems also discourage experimentation.<sup id="cite_ref-Johnson2_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johnson2-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The change agent is to be prepared for having to address all of the above hazards and obstacles. Some of the things which will help the change agent are:
</p>
<ol><li>A real need in the <a href="Customer" title="Customer">client</a> system to change</li>
<li>Genuine support from management</li>
<li>Setting a personal example: listening, supporting behavior</li>
<li>A sound background in the behavioral sciences</li>
<li>A working knowledge of systems theory</li>
<li>A belief in man as a rational, self-educating being fully capable of learning better ways to do things.<sup id="cite_ref-Johnson2_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johnson2-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol>
<p>A few examples of interventions include <a href="Team_building" title="Team building">team building</a>, coaching, Large Group Interventions, mentoring, <a href="Performance_appraisal" title="Performance appraisal">performance appraisal</a>, downsizing, TQM, and leadership development.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div>
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<ul><li><a href="Employee_research" title="Employee research">Employee research</a></li>
<li><a href="Facilitation_(business)" class="mw-redirect" title="Facilitation (business)">Facilitation</a></li>
<li><a href="Georges_Romme" title="Georges Romme">Georges Romme</a> (involved in designing OD education)</li>
<li><a href="Human_relations_movement" title="Human relations movement">Human relations movement</a></li>
<li><a href="Large-group_capacitation" title="Large-group capacitation">Large-group capacitation</a></li>
<li><a href="Organizational_communication" title="Organizational communication">Organizational communication</a></li>
<li><a href="Organizational_diagnostics" title="Organizational diagnostics">Organizational diagnostics</a></li>
<li><a href="Organizational_engineering" title="Organizational engineering">Organizational engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="Performance_improvement" title="Performance improvement">Performance improvement</a></li></ul>
</div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>
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<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bradford, D.L. & Burke, W.W.(eds), 2005, Reinventing Organization Development. San Francisco: Pfeiffer.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">deKler, M. (2007). Healing emotional trauma in organizations: An O.D. Framework and case study. Organizational Development Journal, 25(2), 49-56.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Measure_of_Man-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Measure_of_Man_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFAubrey2015" class="citation book cs1">Aubrey, Bob (September 2015). <i>The Measure of Man: Leading Human Development</i>. McGraw Hill Education.</cite></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFWendell_L_French;_Cecil_Bell1973" class="citation book cs1">Wendell L French; Cecil Bell (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/organizationdev00fren/page/18"><i>Organization development: behavioral science interventions for organization improvement</i></a>. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/organizationdev00fren/page/18">18</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-13-641662-4</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/314258">314258</a>.</cite><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Lewin-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lewin_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lewin_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lewin_22-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKurt_Lewin1958" class="citation book cs1">Kurt Lewin (1958). <i>Group Decision and Social Change</i>. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. p. 201.</cite></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Johnson2-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Johnson2_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Johnson2_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Johnson2_23-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRichard_Arvid_Johnson1976" class="citation book cs1">Richard Arvid Johnson (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/managementsystem00john/page/224"><i>Management, systems, and society: an introduction</i></a>. Pacific Palisades, Calif.: Goodyear Pub. Co. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/managementsystem00john/page/224">224–226</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-87620-540-6</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/2299496">2299496</a>.</cite></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFVriensAchterberg2019" class="citation book cs1">Vriens, Dirk; Achterberg, Jan (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/mono/10.4324/9781315695228-4/episodic-interventions-organizational-structures-jan-achterbergh-dirk-vriens?context=ubx&refId=47415815-d203-433b-936d-3c99f34da199">"Episodic interventions in organizational structures"</a>. <i>Organizational Development</i>. Routledge. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781315695228</bdi>.</cite></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRichard_Beckhard1969" class="citation book cs1">Richard Beckhard (1969). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/organizationdeve0000beck"><i>Organization development: strategies and models</i></a></span>. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/organizationdeve0000beck/page/26">26–27</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780201004489</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/39328">39328</a>.</cite></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-French_and_Bell-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-French_and_Bell_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFWendell_L_French;_Cecil_Bell1973" class="citation book cs1">Wendell L French; Cecil Bell (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/organizationdev00fren/page/"><i>Organization development: behavioral science interventions for organization improvement</i></a>. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/organizationdev00fren/page/">chapter 8</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-13-641662-4</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/314258">314258</a>.</cite><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)</span></span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>
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<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFArgyrisSchon1978" class="citation cs2">Argyris, C.; Schon, D. (1978), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/organizationalle00chri"><i>Organizational Learning: A theory of action perspective</i></a>, Reading MA: Addison-Wesley, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-201-00174-8</bdi></cite></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFCarter2004" class="citation cs2">Carter, Louis L. (2004), <i>Best Practices in Leadership Development and Organization Change</i>, Jossey Bass, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-7879-7625-3</bdi></cite></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFEunson1987" class="citation cs2">Eunson, Baden (1987), <i>Behaving – Managing Yourself and Others.</i>, MacGraw-Hill, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-0745-2022-2</bdi></cite></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFNonakaTakeuchi1995" class="citation cs2">Nonaka, I.; Takeuchi, H. (1995), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=B-qxrPaU1-MC"><i>The Knowledge Creating Company</i></a>, New York: New York: Oxford University Press, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-19-509269-4</bdi></cite><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{citation}}</code>: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)</span></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFSullivan2010" class="citation cs2">Sullivan, Roland (2010), <i>Practicing Organization Development: A Guide for Leading Change</i>, Jossey Bass, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-470-40544-4</bdi></cite></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFRother2009" class="citation cs2">Rother, Mike (2009), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_1lhPgAACAAJ&q=toyota+kata"><i>Toyota Kata</i></a>, McGraw-Hill, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-07-163523-3</bdi></cite></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFSenge1990" class="citation cs2">Senge, Peter M. (1990), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bVZqAAAAMAAJ"><i>The Fifth Discipline</i></a>, Doubleday/Currency, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-385-26094-6</bdi></cite> see also: <a href="The_Fifth_Discipline" title="The Fifth Discipline">The Fifth Discipline</a></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFCummingsWorley2005" class="citation cs2">Cummings, Thomas G.; Worley, Christopher G. (2005), <i>Organization Development & Change</i>, Thomson South-Western, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>81-315-0287-2</bdi></cite></li>
<li>Schultz, Diane P. Schultz, Sydney Ellen (2006) Psychology and work today: and introduction to industrial and organizational psychology (9th ed.) Upper Saddle River, NY: Prentice Hall p262. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-13-193212-8</bdi></li></ul>
</div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>
<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.odnetwork.org/">Organization Development Network</a> An international, professional association of educators and practitioners.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.instituteod.com">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150831084224/http://instituteod.com/news.php">[2]</a> online certification programs for OD professionals.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151108164625/http://registration.instituteod.com/">www.instituteod.com</a> The Institute of Organization Development: Online certification programs</li></ul>
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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Aspects_of_organizations374" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Aspects_of_organizations374" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Aspects of <a href="Organization" title="Organization">organizations</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Organizational_architecture" title="Organizational architecture">Architecture</a></li>
<li><a href="Organizational_behavior" title="Organizational behavior">Behavior</a></li>
<li><a href="Blame#In_organizations" title="Blame">Blame</a></li>
<li><a href="Organizational_capital" title="Organizational capital">Capital</a></li>
<li><a href="Cellular_organizational_structure" title="Cellular organizational structure">Cells</a></li>
<li><a href="Organizational_chart" title="Organizational chart">Chart</a></li>
<li><a href="Organizational_citizenship_behavior" title="Organizational citizenship behavior">Citizenship behavior</a></li>
<li><a href="Organisation_climate" title="Organisation climate">Climate</a></li>
<li><a href="Organizational_commitment" title="Organizational commitment">Commitment</a></li>
<li><a href="Organizational_communication" title="Organizational communication">Communication</a></li>
<li><a href="Complexity_theory_and_organizations" title="Complexity theory and organizations">Complexity</a></li>
<li><a href="Organizational_conflict" title="Organizational conflict">Conflict</a></li>
<li><a href="Organizational_culture" title="Organizational culture">Culture</a></li>
<li><a href="Organizational_architecture" title="Organizational architecture">Design</a></li>
<li><a href="Organizational_diagnostics" title="Organizational diagnostics">Diagnostics</a></li>
<li><a href="Organizational_dissent" title="Organizational dissent">Dissent</a></li>
<li><a href="Organizational_ecology" title="Organizational ecology">Ecology</a></li>
<li><a href="Organizational_effectiveness" title="Organizational effectiveness">Effectiveness</a></li>
<li><a href="Organizational_engineering" title="Organizational engineering">Engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="Organizational_ethics" title="Organizational ethics">Ethics</a></li>
<li><a href="Organizational_field" title="Organizational field">Field</a></li>
<li><a href="Hierarchical_organization" title="Hierarchical organization">Hierarchy</a></li>
<li><a href="Organizational_identification" title="Organizational identification">Identification</a></li>
<li><a href="Organizational_intelligence" title="Organizational intelligence">Intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="Organizational_justice" title="Organizational justice">Justice</a></li>
<li><a href="Organizational_learning" title="Organizational learning">Learning</a></li>
<li><a href="Organizational_life_cycle" title="Organizational life cycle">Life cycle</a></li>
<li><a href="Machiavellianism_in_the_workplace" title="Machiavellianism in the workplace">Machiavellianism</a></li>
<li><a href="Narcissism_in_the_workplace" title="Narcissism in the workplace">Narcissism</a></li>
<li><a href="Organizational_network_analysis" title="Organizational network analysis">Network analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="Organizational_ombudsman" title="Organizational ombudsman">Ombudsman</a></li>
<li><a href="Organizational_patterns" title="Organizational patterns">Patterns</a></li>
<li><a href="Perceived_organizational_support" title="Perceived organizational support">Perceived support</a></li>
<li><a href="Organizational_performance" class="mw-redirect" title="Organizational performance">Performance</a></li>
<li><a href="Industrial_and_organizational_psychology" title="Industrial and organizational psychology">Psychology</a></li>
<li><a href="Resilience_(organizational)" class="mw-redirect" title="Resilience (organizational)">Resilience</a></li>
<li><a href="Organizational_retaliatory_behavior" class="mw-redirect" title="Organizational retaliatory behavior">Retaliatory behavior</a></li>
<li><a href="Organizational_safety" title="Organizational safety">Safety</a></li>
<li><a href="Organizational_space" title="Organizational space">Space</a></li>
<li><a href="Organizational_storytelling" title="Organizational storytelling">Storytelling</a></li>
<li><a href="Organizational_structure" title="Organizational structure">Structure</a></li>
<li><a href="Organizational_theory" title="Organizational theory">Theory</a></li>
<li><a href="Organization_workshop" title="Organization workshop">Workshop</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="History_of_organizations" title="History of organizations">History of organizations</a></li>
<li><a href="Organization_studies" title="Organization studies">Organization studies</a></li>
<li><a href="Outline_of_organizational_theory" title="Outline of organizational theory">Outline of organizational theory</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>
<dl><dt><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Template"></span></span> See also templates</dt>
<dd>Aspects of corporations</dd>
<dd>Aspects of jobs</dd>
<dd>Aspects of occupations</dd>
<dd>Aspects of workplaces</dd></dl>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Management363" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Management363" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Management" title="Management">Management</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>
<ul><li><a href="Outline_of_management" title="Outline of management">Outline of management</a></li>
<li><a href="Index_of_management_articles" title="Index of management articles">Index of management articles</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: LemonChiffon">By type<br>of organization</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Academic_administration" title="Academic administration">Academic</a></li>
<li>Association</li>
<li><a href="Business_administration" title="Business administration">Business</a>
<ul><li><a href="Restaurant_management" title="Restaurant management">Restaurant</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Court_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Court management">Court</a></li>
<li><a href="Health_administration" title="Health administration">Healthcare</a></li>
<li><a href="Intelligence_cycle_management" title="Intelligence cycle management">Intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="Military_administration" title="Military administration">Military</a></li>
<li><a href="Public_administration" title="Public administration">Public</a></li>
<li><a href="Reputation_management" title="Reputation management">Reputation</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: LemonChiffon">By focus,<br>within an<br>organization</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">On scope</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Strategic_management" title="Strategic management">Strategic</a><br>(top-level)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Capability_management" title="Capability management">Capability</a></li>
<li><a href="Capital_management" title="Capital management">Capital</a></li>
<li><a href="Change_management" title="Change management">Change</a></li>
<li><a href="Communications_management" title="Communications management">Communication</a></li>
<li><a href="Financial_management" title="Financial management">Financial</a></li>
<li><a href="Innovation_management" title="Innovation management">Innovation</a></li>
<li><a href="Enterprise_legal_management" title="Enterprise legal management">Legal</a></li>
<li><a href="Performance_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Performance management">Performance</a></li>
<li><a href="Risk_management" title="Risk management">Risk</a></li>
<li><a href="Systems_management" title="Systems management">Systems</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">On component</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Facility_management" title="Facility management">Facility</a></li>
<li><a href="Product_management" title="Product management">Product</a>
<ul><li><a href="Product_lifecycle" title="Product lifecycle">Product lifecycle</a></li>
<li><a href="Brand_management" title="Brand management">Brand</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Project_management" title="Project management">Project</a>
<ul><li><a href="Construction_management" title="Construction management">Construction</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Program_management" title="Program management">Program</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">On activity or<br>department<br>managed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Line_management" title="Line management">Line</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Marketing_management" title="Marketing management">Marketing</a></li>
<li><a href="Operations_management" title="Operations management">Operations</a>/<a href="Manufacturing_process_management" title="Manufacturing process management">production</a>
<ul><li><a href="Process_management_(computing)" title="Process management (computing)">Process</a></li>
<li><a href="Quality_management" title="Quality management">Quality</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Sales_management" title="Sales management">Sales</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Staff_management" title="Staff management">Staff</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Accounting_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Accounting management">Accounting</a></li>
<li><a href="Office_management" title="Office management">Office</a></li>
<li><a href="Records_management" title="Records management">Records</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">On aspect or<br>relationship</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Customer_relationship_management" title="Customer relationship management">Customer relationship</a></li>
<li><a href="Engineering_management" title="Engineering management">Engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="Logistics" title="Logistics">Logistics</a></li>
<li><a href="Perception_management" title="Perception management">Perception</a></li>
<li><a href="Supply_chain_management" title="Supply chain management">Supply chain</a></li>
<li><a href="Talent_management" title="Talent management">Talent</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">On problem</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Conflict_management" title="Conflict management">Conflict</a></li>
<li><a href="Crisis_management" title="Crisis management">Crisis</a></li>
<li><a href="Stress_management" title="Stress management">Stress</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Resource_management" title="Resource management">On resource</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Environmental_resource_management" title="Environmental resource management">Environmental resource</a></li>
<li><a href="Field_inventory_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Field inventory management">Field inventory</a></li>
<li><a href="Human_resource_management" title="Human resource management">Human resources</a></li>
<li><a href="Information_management" title="Information management">Information</a></li>
<li><a href="Information_technology_management" title="Information technology management">Information technology</a></li>
<li><a href="Knowledge_management" title="Knowledge management">Knowledge</a></li>
<li><a href="Land_management" title="Land management">Land</a></li>
<li><a href="Materials_management" title="Materials management">Materials</a></li>
<li><a href="Skills_management" title="Skills management">Skills</a></li>
<li><a href="Technology_management" title="Technology management">Technology</a></li>
<li><a href="Time_management" title="Time management">Time</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: LemonChiffon">Positions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Interim_management" title="Interim management">Interim</a></li>
<li><a href="Middle_management" title="Middle management">Middle</a></li>
<li><a href="Senior_management" title="Senior management">Senior</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: LemonChiffon">Methods,<br>approaches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Adhocracy" title="Adhocracy">Adhocracy</a></li>
<li><a href="Collaborative_method" title="Collaborative method">Collaborative method</a></li>
<li><a href="Distributed_management" title="Distributed management">Distributed</a></li>
<li><a href="Earned_value_management" title="Earned value management">Earned value management</a></li>
<li><a href="Evidence-based_management" title="Evidence-based management">Evidence-based management</a></li>
<li><a href="Full_range_leadership_model" title="Full range leadership model">Full range leadership model</a></li>
<li><a href="Management_by_objectives" title="Management by objectives">Management by objectives</a></li>
<li><a href="Management_style" title="Management style">Management style</a></li>
<li><a href="Macromanagement" title="Macromanagement">Macromanagement</a></li>
<li><a href="Micromanagement" title="Micromanagement">Micromanagement</a></li>
<li><a href="Scientific_management" title="Scientific management">Scientific management</a></li>
<li><a href="Social_entrepreneurship" title="Social entrepreneurship">Social entrepreneurship</a></li>
<li><a href="Sustainable_management" title="Sustainable management">Sustainable management</a></li>
<li><a href="Team_building" title="Team building">Team building</a></li>
<li><a href="Virtual_management" title="Virtual management">Virtual management</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: LemonChiffon">Skills,<br>activities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Decision-making" title="Decision-making">Decision-making</a></li>
<li><a href="Forecasting" title="Forecasting">Forecasting</a></li>
<li><a href="Leadership" title="Leadership">Leadership</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: LemonChiffon">Pioneers,<br>scholars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Peter_Drucker" title="Peter Drucker">Peter Drucker</a></li>
<li><a href="Eliyahu_M._Goldratt" title="Eliyahu M. Goldratt">Eliyahu M. Goldratt</a></li>
<li><a href="Oliver_E._Williamson" title="Oliver E. Williamson">Oliver E. Williamson</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: LemonChiffon">Education</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Business_school" title="Business school">Business school</a></li>
<li><a href="Certified_Business_Manager" title="Certified Business Manager">Certified Business Manager</a></li>
<li><a href="Chartered_Management_Institute" title="Chartered Management Institute">Chartered Management Institute</a></li>
<li><a href="Critical_management_studies" title="Critical management studies">Critical management studies</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: LemonChiffon">Degrees</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Bachelor_of_Business_Administration" title="Bachelor of Business Administration">Bachelor of Business Administration</a></li>
<li><a href="Master_of_Business_Administration" title="Master of Business Administration">Master of Business Administration</a></li>
<li><a href="PhD_in_management" title="PhD in management">PhD in management</a></li>
<li><a href="Doctor_of_Business_Administration" title="Doctor of Business Administration">Doctor of Business Administration</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: LemonChiffon">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Business_administration" title="Business administration">Administration</a></li>
<li><a href="Collaboration" title="Collaboration">Collaboration</a></li>
<li><a href="Corporate_governance" title="Corporate governance">Corporate governance</a></li>
<li><a href="Executive_compensation" title="Executive compensation">Executive compensation</a></li>
<li><a href="Management_consulting" title="Management consulting">Management consulting</a></li>
<li><a href="Control_(management)" title="Control (management)">Management control</a></li>
<li><a href="Management_cybernetics" title="Management cybernetics">Management cybernetics</a></li>
<li><a href="Management_development" title="Management development">Management development</a></li>
<li><a href="Management_fad" title="Management fad">Management fad</a></li>
<li><a href="Management_system" title="Management system">Management system</a></li>
<li><a href="Managerial_economics" title="Managerial economics">Managerial economics</a></li>
<li><a href="Managerial_psychology" title="Managerial psychology">Managerial psychology</a></li>
<li><a href="Managerialism" title="Managerialism">Managerialism</a></li>
<li><a href="Organizational_behavior_management" title="Organizational behavior management">Organizational behavior management</a></li>
<li><a href="Pointy-haired_Boss" class="mw-redirect" title="Pointy-haired Boss">Pointy-haired Boss</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"></span> <b><a href="Portal%3ASystems_science" title="Portal:Systems science">Systems science portal</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><!--htdig_noindex--><div><div class="zim-footer">
This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-05-26" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Organization_development&oldid=1292290878">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.
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